Human Anatomy

BIOL460 is a four (4) credit course that presents a systematic approach to the study of the human body. The course has been developed to provide students from the biology, pre-allied health, pre-medicine and foundation to medicine (FTM) programs with a basic foundation in the anatomical sciences. The anatomical sciences include human gross anatomy, developmental anatomy, histology and cell biology. BIOL460 begins with an introduction to anatomical terminology and imaging, cellular organization and the basic tissues. The course continues with an extensive study of the eleven major systems of the human body: Integumentary System, Skeletal System, Muscular System, Cardiovascular System, Lymphatic System, Respiratory System, Digestive System, Urinary System, Male & Female Reproductive Systems, Nervous System and Endocrine System. The course is composed of lecture, laboratory, small group and online activities.

Faculty: All teaching faculty are from the Department of Anatomical Sciences.  

3. Contact Information – biol460@sgu.edu 

• All questions or concerns can be directed to the above email address, which is accessed by the course directors and office staff. 
• All communication must be via your SGU email address. 

Faculty Appointments: 

All faculty appointments are to be made in person or via email by contacting Ms. Sharon-Rose Lessey at the main Anatomy office between the hours of 08:30-12:00 and 13:00 – 15:30 only. The department is open from 08:00 – 17:00 during week days and is closed over the weekend and on public holidays. 

Content Related Questions:

The most efficient way to address all content-related questions is through the use of the general forums on MyCourses. It is an ideal place to interact with peers and it is moderated by faculty. 

Copyright

Copyright 2017 St. George's University. All rights reserved.

All course material, whether in print or online, is protected by  copyright. Course materials, in part or in their entirety, may not be copied, distributed or published in any form , printed, electronic or otherwise.

As an exception, students enrolled in the course are permitted to make electronic or print copies of all downloadable files for personal and classroom use only, provided that no alterations to the documents are made and that the copyright statement is maintained in all copies.

Lecture recordings are explicitly excluded from download and creating copies of these recordings by students and other users is strictly prohibited.

Course Website

The BIOL460 Human Anatomy course offers a website through Sakai, our learning management system . This site is used for COMMUNICATION (including Announcements,

Calendar and Discussion Forums), COURSE TOOLS (including Syllabus, Resources, Tests & Quizzes, Gradebook, a web link to the student resources of the Required Books, and a link to Lecture Recordings).

To login, go to my Campus Secure Login (Portal), type in your user ID and password, and click on

My Courses.

The MyCourses site contains multiple folders:

Announcements

Contains notifications and information about events relative to the course and should be checked on a regular basis. 

Syllabus

This folder contains the course syllabus and learning objectives.

Resources

This folder contains the theoretical and administrative information about BIOL460

• Course Information: Schedules, protocols, exam and other course information.
• Lab: Lab image banks and structure lists.
• Lecture: Course lectures in .pdf format. 
• Mediasite Catalog: Lectures recorded and uploaded in Sonic Foundry. 
• Online Resource: Supplemental material for histology tissue preparation and embryology lectures.

Test and Quizzes

This folder contains the online assignments and virtual quizzes.

Gradebook2:

This folder contains all course assessment scores.

Required Electronic equipment

Laptop

Students need a personal laptop as specified by SGU Examination Services. It is the responsibility of each student to ensure his/her laptop is in full working condition, as specified by Examination Services, and keep it up to date and equipped for the SGU wireless network at all times.

Clicker

An Audience Response System (clicker) is used to assess student participation and performance in instructional sessions. Its use reflects the participation and performance of the student to whom the device is registered. Misrepresentation of participation and/or performance through the misuse of clickers constitutes academic dishonesty and may result in the dismissal of any student committing such a violation of the Student Code of Conduct.

Throughout the term , a student m ay use only a single clicker, which has been registered to their name. Clicker devices are not to be shared with any other student, temporarily reregistered under a different name, or used on behalf of any other student. Each student is responsible for the registration of their individual clicker and is further responsible to keep it in full working condition at all times during the course. Any problem s with the device should be reported to the Course Director on the day the problem occurs and adequate steps should be taken to resolve the issue, e.g. batter y replacement, or repair or replacement of device.

Students are required to bring their clicker to every scheduled teaching session.

Rules of Clicker usage

It is the responsibility of each student to bring their own (and only their own) individually assigned clicker for the Premedical Sciences- SOM program to every class session and respond to questions presented during that session. Students are responsible for ensuring that their clicker is registered before the start of classes and fully functional; they should request assistance in testing clicker functionality in case there is any doubt.

Factors that are essential for full clicker functionality include a fully charged battery and setting the correct channel for transmission of the signal. A student is responsible for checking full functionality of their individual clicker regularly by monitoring the green LED response after successful response transmission.

Students actively or passively (either for their own, or for someone else’s benefit) involved in fraudulent attempts to manipulate examination or participation / submission records maybe dismissed for violation of the honor code.

A student caught in possession of multiple clickers inside a class venue may be dismissed for violation of the honor code.

Announcements: 

Announcements regarding course activities such as exam/lab venues, program and schedules changes will be posted on MyCourses. 

  Your SGU e-mail account is the only official e-mail address the Department and the University will use to communicate with you.

Textbook:

• Principles of Human Anatomy, 13^th Edition

Tortora & Nielsen

ISBN-10:1118344995

ISBN-13: 978-1118344996

Lecture Handouts:

• Pre-midterm and post-midterm lecture handouts.  

Supplemental Resources on MyCourses:

• Embryology resources
• Laboratory image banks and structure lists

The text, lecture handouts, and supplemental resources serve as the primary resources for all required content and knowledge in this course. Successful students are those who become familiar with the textbook and: read and review required sections in order to have an adequate working knowledge of the course material.

I.        Lectures

A large part of the course content will be presented in the form of lectures. Each lecture will last 50 minutes and will take place at the Bourne Lecture Hall (BLH) unless otherwise indicated. The lecture schedule is available on MyCourses. The objective of the lectures is to give an outline of what students are expected to know and explain difficult concepts. Previewing the text, lecture notes and objectives is highly recommended. The lecture handouts in no way replace the need to read the textbook. It is an important learning exercise for the students to learn to read textbooks and glean out important information. Lectures are recorded and uploaded to the Mediasite. 

Lecture Etiquette:

The use of cell phones is not allowed. No pictures or recordings are allowed at any time in the lectures or labs.

II.       Anatomy Laboratory Sessions

Laboratory sessions are held at the Anatomy dissection lab. The laboratory activities parallel and reinforce lecture content through the use of models, prosected cadaveric material and histological slides. Students will attend two (2) hours of lab per week. Faculty will facilitate and be available for questions and guidance. 

Lab open hours

Students will have access to lab open hours as per the official lab schedule these hours are for self-study and no faculty will be present in open hour sessions, lab rules must be fully observed during open hour sessions.

Anatomy Lab Rules:

• Attire:  Full set of scrubs (top & bottom) and closed toe shoes.
• You are required to bring your own gloves to lab activities.
• It is a privilege to have access to donated cadaveric materials.  
  • All materials in the lab should be handled with care and respect at all times.
• Food and drink are not permitted in the lab at any time.
  • Includes chewing gum and drinking water.
• No pictures or recordings are allowed at any time in the lecture or lab. 
• Use of cell phones is not allowed. 
  • Students should use vibration mode and not answer the phone while in the lab.

Lab Material: 

The laboratory learning resources such as plastic models, plastinated specimens and cadaveric materials are expensive and often fragile. Students should take special care while handling them. Images representative of what will be reviewed during the lab sessions can be found in the lab folder on MyCourses. Students are encouraged to review them with the aid of the text book before each lab activity. Content from the labs will be evaluated in the virtual component of all exams. Students enrolled in BIOL460 will be assigned to predetermined lab groups which can be found on MyCourses. As a general rule, students may only attend the lab session to which they have been assigned. However if there is a conflict with the lab on a particular day, please inform the course director in advance.

Lab Quiz: 

There will be 6 five-question lab quizzes on SAKAI during the course of the term and will correspond to lab sessions and specimen seen. The lab quizzes will contribute a maximum of 10 (ten) points or 4% of the course. There will be no remediation for missed lab quizzes. 

3. Buzz Group Sessions 

Buzz (small) group sessions run simultaneously with the Anatomy laboratory activities. Buzz group sessions involve discussions of anatomically relevant details of clinical cases among the small groups of students. Students will be assigned to predetermined buzz groups.  

Buzz Quiz:

There will be 5 five-question quizzes on during the course of the term and will correspond to the topics discussed in the Buzz sessions. The buzz quizzes will contribute a maximum of 10 (ten) points or 4%  of the course. There will be no remediation for missed buzz quizzes. 

4. Virtual Quiz

There are six (6) virtual quizzes posted on MyCourses. Each virtual quiz contains ten (10) multiple choice questions based on the laboratory component of the course and includes images from the laboratory image bank. All students are strongly advised to take the virtual quiz soon after they are made available and not to wait until the closing date. Virtual quizzes will not be reopened once closed. Virtual quizzes add up to a total of 10 (ten) points or 4% of the course.

Instructions:

1. There is a time limit of 30 minutes to complete each quiz. The quiz will automatically submit after 30 minutes regardless of state of completion. Accesses to these quizzes are recorded.
2. After submission the score and answers are saved and can be reviewed until the closing date of the assignment.
3. Any problems encountered should be reported to the prior to the closing date of the assignment.
4. Each virtual quiz remains open for seven (7) days.
5. Unlimited attempts.
6. The highest score is recorded and it is each student’s responsibility to ensure that his/her score is recorded by checking the feedback and milestones.

1. Anatomical Terminology & Imaging  

1.1. Define anatomy and describe the sub disciplines of anatomy. 

1.2. Describe the orientation of the human body in the anatomical position. 

1.3. Describe the anatomical terms for the various regions of the human body. 

1.4. Define the anatomical planes and sections. 

1.5. Define the directional terms used to describe the human body. 

1.6. Describe the major body cavities. 

1.7. Name and describe the abdominopelvic regions and quadrants. 

1.8. Describe the principles of common medical imaging procedures including: 

radiography/X-ray, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), ultrasound and endoscopy. 

1.9. Recognize the different planes and sections used in imaging. 

1.10. Recognize anatomical structures using medical imaging. 

2. Cellular Organization  

2.1. Name and describe the principal parts of a cell. 

2.2. Describe the structure and function of the plasma membrane. 

2.3. Explain the role of cell membrane as a selective barrier. 

2.4. Describe the types of movement permissible across the cell membrane. 

2.5. Explain the basic principles of diffusion and osmosis. 

2.6. Explain active and passive membrane transport. 

2.7. List the two major types of vesicular transport. 

2.8. List and describe the three different mechanisms of endocytosis. 

2.9. Describe the structure and function of the cytoplasm, cytosol and organelles. 

2.10. List and describe the structure & function of the ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (rER & sER), Golgi apparatus, lysosome, peroxisome and mitochondria. 

2.11. List the three major types of protein filaments that form the cytoskeleton. 

2.12. Describe the structure and function of microvilli and sterocilia. 

2.13. Describe the structure and function of the centrosome. 

2.14. Describe the structure and function of the cilia and flagella. 

2.15. Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus. 

2.16. Identify the nucleus and nucleolus. 

2.17. Describe the function of the nucleolus. 

2.18. Describe the structure and function of the nuclear envelope. 

2.19. Describe the structure and function of the nuclear pore complex. 

2.20. Describe the organization of chromatin structure. 

2.21. Distinguish euchromatin and heterochromatin in a nucleus. 

2.22. Discuss the stages, events and significance of somatic cell division. 

2.23. List and describe the sequence of events occurring in interphase. 

2.24. List and describe the sequence of events occurring in mitosis. 

2.25. Describe the function of the centromere. 

2.26. Describe the function of the kinetochore. 

2.27. Describe the function of the mitotic spindle. 

2.28. Discuss the stages, events and significance of reproductive cell division. 

2.29. Describe the sequence of events occurring in meiosis. 

2.30. Describe the two events in meiosis that increase genetic diversity. 

2.31. Define benign, malignant & metastasis. 

2.32. Describe the classification of cancer cells including carcinoma & sarcoma. 

2.33. Define proto-oncogene, oncogene and tumor-suppressor gene.  

3. Epithelial Tissue  

3.1. Describe the general features of epithelial tissue. 

3.2. Describe the classification of epithelial tissues. 

3.3. List the location, structure and function of each type of epithelial tissue. 3.4. Discuss relationship between epithelial tissue function and morphology 

3.5. Compare endocrine and exocrine glands. 

3.6. Describe the structural and functional classification of exocrine glands. 

3.7. Describe the structure and functions of the five main types of cell junctions. 

3.8. Describe the different apical modifications of epithelial cells and typical locations. 

3.9. Describe the types of epithelial membranes. 

4. Connective Tissue  

4.1. Describe the general features of connective tissue. 

4.2. Describe the structure, functions and locations of the types of connective tissue. 

4.3. Identify and describe the function of the types of connective tissue cells. 

4.4. Describe the major components of the extracellular matrix. 

4.5. Describe the components and characteristics of the ground substance. 

4.6. Describe the characteristics of the types of fibers found in the extracellular matrix. 

4.7. Describe the classification of connective tissues. 

4.8. Identify the different types of connective tissues. 

4.9. Discuss Marfan syndrome, scurvy, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and keloids. 

5. Integumentary System  

5.1. Describe the components of the integumentary system. 

5.2. Identify the two layers of the skin. 

5.3. Identify and describe the layers of the epidermis.  

5.4. Describe the location and functions of the principal cell types of the epidermis. 

5.5. Describe the functional role of cell junctions in the epidermis including desmosomes and hemidesmosomes. 

5.6. Identify and describe the layers of the dermis. 

5.7. Discuss the basis of skin color. 

5.8. Identify and describe the structure, functions and locations of hair. 

5.9. Identify and describe the structure, functions and locations of the glands of the skin. 

5.10. Identify and describe the structure, functions and location of nails. 

5.11. Compare the structural and functional characteristics of thick and thin skin. 

5.12. Describe the functions of the skin. 

5.13. Discuss basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma, burns, albinism, vitiligo and acne. 

6. Cartilage & Bone 

6.1. Describe the general features of cartilage. 

6.2. Identify and describe the structure, functions and locations of the types of cartilage. 

6.3. Describe the types of growth, repair and maintenance of cartilage. 

6.4. Describe the general features of bone. 

6.5. Describe the classification of bones and list examples. 

6.6. Describe the parts of a long bone. 

6.7. Identify and describe the principal surface markings of bones. 

6.8. Define the following terms: fissure, foramen, fossa, sulcus, meatus, condyle, facet, head, crest, epicondyle, spinous process, trochanter, tubercle and tuberosity. 

6.9. Identify and describe the structure and functions of compact bone. 

6.10. Identify and describe the components of an osteon or haversian system. 

6.11. Identify and describe the structure and functions of spongy bone. 

6.12. Describe the histological features of bone.  

6.13. Compare the microscopic structure and function of compact and spongy bone. 

6.14. Identify and describe the functions of the cells found in bone. 

6.15. Describe the types of fibers found in bone. 

6.16. Describe the extracellular matrix of bone. 

6.17. Describe the blood and nerve supply of bone. 

6.18. Describe the types of growth, repair and maintenance of bone. 

6.19. Discuss the common types of fractures. 

6.20. Describe the process involved in the repair of bone fractures. 

6.21. Discuss rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis and treatments for fractures. 

7. Skeletal System  

7.1. Describe how the skeleton is organized into axial and appendicular divisions.  

7.2. Identify and describe the features of the cranial bones and facial bones of the skull. 

7.3. Identify and describe the features of the skull including: sutures, paranasal sinuses, fissures, foramen, meatuses and processes. 

7.4. Identify the regions and curvatures of the vertebral column. 

7.5. Describe the structural and functional features of the vertebrae of each region of the vertebral column.  

7.6. Describe the parts of a typical vertebra. 

7.7. Identify and describe the features of the sternum & ribs. 

7.8. Identify and describe the features of the bones of the upper limb. 

7.9. Identify and describe the features of the bones of the lower limb. 

7.10. Compare & contrast the characteristic features of male and female pelvis. 

8. Joints 

8.1. Describe the structural and functional classification of joints.  

8.2. Explain the functional importance of ligaments at joints. 

8.3. Describes the structure and functions of fibrous joints. 

8.4. Describes the structure and functions of cartilaginous joints. 

8.5. Describe the structure of synovial joints. 

8.6. Describe the six types of synovial joints. 

8.7. Discuss the major joints of the upper limb (glenohumeral, acromio-clavicular, elbow and wrist) with emphasis on classification, articulating surfaces, movements, and clinical correlates. 

8.8. Discuss the major joints of the lower limb (hip, knee and ankle) with emphasis on: classification, articulating surfaces, movements, clinical correlates. 

8.9. Describe the structure and functions of the major joints of the axial skeleton (atlantoaxial, atlanto-occipital, intervertebral, costovertebral, costochondral, temporomandibular) with emphasis on classification, articulating surfaces, movements, and clinical correlates. 

9. Muscular Tissue  

9.1. Compare the three types of muscle tissue based structure, function, location and special features. 

9.2. Describe the organization of skeletal muscle and its connective tissue coverings. 

9.3. Explain the relationship between muscle fascicles, muscle fibers, myofibrils and myofilaments. 

9.4. Describe the histology of skeletal muscle. 

9.5. Describe the functions of skeletal muscle proteins. 

9.6. Discuss the process of skeletal muscle stimulation, contraction and relaxation at molecular, cellular and tissue levels. 

9.7. Compare the three types of skeletal muscle fibers. 

9.8. Describe the histology of cardiac muscle. 

9.9. Describe the histology of smooth muscle. 

10. Muscular System 

10.1. Describe the relationship between bones and skeletal muscles in producing body movement. 

10.2. Explain the characteristics used to name skeletal muscles. 

10.3. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of facial expression. 

10.4. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles that move the mandible and assist in mastication & speech. 

10.5. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles that move the head. 

10.6. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles that move the vertebral column. 

10.7. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles that protect the abdominal viscera and move the vertebral column. 

10.8. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the thorax that assist in breathing. 

10.9. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the thorax that move the pectoral girdle.  

10.10. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the thorax and shoulder that move the humerus. 

10.11. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the arm that move the radius and ulna. 

10.12. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the forearm that move the wrist, hand and digits. 

10.13. Describe the action and innervation of the intrinsic muscles of the hand. 

10.14. Categorize the muscles of the upper limb into functional compartments and identify the nerve that supplies each unit. 

10.15. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the gluteal region that move the femur.  

10.16. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the thigh that move the femur, tibia and fibula. 

10.17. Describe the action and innervation of the muscles of the leg that move the foot and toes. 

10.18. Describe the action and innervation of the intrinsic muscles of the foot that move the toes. 

10.19. Categorize the muscles of the lower limb into functional compartments and identify the nerves that supply each unit. 

10.20. Identify and predict the signs characteristic of loss of muscle function in basic clinical situations. 

11. Early Embryology  

11.1. Differentiate between embryological development and fetal development. 

11.2. Describe the major events that occur during the first week of development.  

11.3. Describe the events occurring during fertilization.  

11.4. Describe the events occurring during cleavage. 

11.5. Describe the events occurring during blastocyst formation.  

11.6. Identify the inner cell mass and trophoblast cell populations. 

11.7. Describe the events occurring during implantation. 

11.8. Describe stem cell research and therapeutic cloning.  

11.9. Define totipotent, pluripotent and multipotent stem cells.  

11.10. Describe ectopic pregnancy.  

11.11. Describe the major events that occur during the second week of development. 

11.12. Identify syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast cells and describe their functions. 

11.13. Describe the development of the bilaminar disc. 

11.14. Describe the development and function of the amnion. 

11.15. Describe the development and function of the yolk sac and extraembryonic coelom. 

11.16. Describe the development and function of the chorion. 

11.17. Describe the major events that occur during the third week of development.  

11.18. Describe gastrulation and the formation of the three primary germ layers.  

11.19. List the three primary germ layers and structures or tissues produced by the each. 

11.20. Describe the notochord and its function. 

11.21. Describe the process of neurulation. 

11.22. Describe the development and function of somites. 

11.23. Describe the development of the intraembryonic coelom.  

11.24. Describe the development of the chorionic villi, placenta and umbilical cord.  

11.25. Describe the structure and functions of the placenta.  

11.26. Describe the structure and functions of the umbilical cord.  

11.27. Describe the major events that occur during the fourth week of development. 

11.28. Define the term organogenesis.  

11.29. Describe the head and tail folding of the embryo.  

11.30. Describe the lateral folding of the embryo.  

11.31. Discuss development of the embryo from the fifth week through eighth week. 

11.32. Describe the major events of the fetal period. 

12. Embryology of the Musculoskeletal System  

12.1. Describe the development and differentiation of somites. 

12.2. Describe the musculoskeletal derivatives of the dermatome, myotome and sclerotome. 

12.3. Describe the development of cartilage. 

12.4. Describe intramembranous ossification. 

12.5. Describe endochondral ossification. 

12.6. Describe the role of the epiphyseal plate in bone growth. 

12.7. Identify the four zones of the epiphyseal plate. 

12.8. Describe the development of the vertebral column, ribs and sternum. 

12.9. Describe the development of the cranium. 

12.10. Describe the stages of limb development. 

12.11. Describe the role of the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) in limb development. 

12.12. Describe the development of skeletal muscle. 

13. Cardiovascular System  

13.1. Blood 

13.1.1. Describe the functions of blood. 

13.1.2. Describe physical characteristics of blood. 

13.1.3. Describe the principal components of blood.  

13.1.4. List the components of plasma and their functions. 

13.1.5. List the components of formed elements. 

13.1.6. Define hematocrit and list the normal values for adult men and women.  

13.1.7. Discuss the procedure and common sites for venipuncture. 

13.1.8. Describe the origin and development of blood cells. 

13.1.9. Describe the process of hemopoiesis (hematopoiesis). 

13.1.10. Describe the hormones associated with the regulation of hematopoiesis. 

13.1.11. Describe the structure and functions of red blood cells (RBCs). 

13.1.12. Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin. 

13.1.13. Describe the life cycle of the RBCs. 

13.1.14. Describe erythropoiesis. 

13.1.15. Describe the main stimulus and regulation of erythropoiesis. 

13.1.16. Describe the basis for ABO and Rh blood groups. 

13.1.17. Define hypoxia and list possible causes.  

13.1.18. Define & discuss the possible causes and different types of anemia. 

13.1.19. Define & discuss the possible causes of polycythemia. 

13.1.20. Discuss sickle cell disease. 

13.1.21. Discuss hemolytic disease of the newborn. 

13.1.22. Describe the structure and function of white blood cells (WBCs). 

13.1.23. List and identify the three types of granular leukocytes. 

13.1.24. List and identify the two types of agranular leukocytes.  

13.1.25. Define a differential white blood cells count, list the normal percentages for WBCs and discuss the significance of high or low cell counts. 

13.1.26. Define and discuss the possible causes of leukocytosis. 

13.1.27. Define and discuss the possible causes of leukopenia. 

13.1.28. Define and discuss the four types of leukemia. 

13.1.29. Describe the structure, functions, origin and hormonal regulation of platelets. 

13.1.30. Discuss stem cell transplants. 

13.2. Heart 

13.2.1. Describe the location and position of the heart. 

13.2.2. Describe the structure of the pericardium. 

13.2.3. Describe the layers of the heart wall. 

13.2.4. Describe the histology of cardiac muscle and the heart.  

13.2.5. Describe the anatomy of the heart chambers and their interrelationships. 

13.2.6. Describe the location, structure and functions of the heart valves. 

13.2.7. Describe the auscultation sites of the heart valves. 

13.2.8. Describe the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart. 

13.2.9. Describe systemic and pulmonary circulation. 

13.2.10. Describe the coronary circulation. 

13.2.11. Describe the structure and functions of the cardiac conduction system. 

13.2.12. Describe the innervation of the heart. 

13.2.13. Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle. 

13.2.14. Describe how heart sounds are produced. 

13.2.15. Discuss coronary artery disease, myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction. 

13.3. Blood Vessels 

13.3.1. Describe the basic structure of a blood vessel. 

13.3.2. Compare & contrast the structure and functions of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. 

13.3.3. Compare & contrast elastic and muscular arteries.  

13.3.4. Describe the location, structure and functions of the three types of capillaries. 

13.3.5. Describe the structural and functional differences between arteries and veins. 

13.3.6. Describe systemic & pulmonary circulation. 

13.3.7. Describe coronary, cerebral and hepatic portal circulation. 

13.3.8. Identify the four divisions of the aorta. 

13.3.9. Identify the major arteries arising from the ascending aorta. 

13.3.10. Identify the major arteries arising from the aortic arch. 

13.3.11. Identify the major arteries that supply the head, neck and upper limb. 

13.3.12. Identify the major arteries arising from the thoracic aorta. 

13.3.13. Identify the major arteries arising from the abdominal aorta. 

13.3.14. Identify the major arteries that supply the head, neck and upper limb. 

13.3.15. Identify the major arteries that supply the pelvis and lower limb. 

13.3.16. Identify the three veins that return deoxygenated blood to the heart. 

13.3.17. Identify the major veins that drain the head, neck and upper limb. 

13.3.18. Identify the components of the azygous system of veins.  

13.3.19. Identify the major veins that drain the abdomen and pelvis. 

13.3.20. Identify the major veins that drain the lower limb. 

13.3.21. Identify the major veins of the hepatic portal circulation. 

13.3.22. Discuss varicose veins, hypertension, aneurysms, hemorrhoids, stroke and thrombosis. 

13.4. Embryology of the Cardiovascular System 

13.4.1. Describe major events that take place in the development of the heart from the cardiogenic mesoderm to the formation of the four chambered heart. 

13.4.2. Describe the subdivisions of the tubular heart and their adult derivatives. 

13.4.3. Describe partitioning of the heart into four chambers. 

13.4.4. Describe the formation of the atrioventricular canal. 

13.4.5. Describe the major events in the partitioning and development of the atria. 

13.4.6. Discuss atrial septal defects. 

13.4.7. Describe the changes in the sinus venosus. 

13.4.8. Describe the major events in the partitioning and development of the ventricles. 

13.4.9. Describe the major events in the partitioning of the bulbus cordis and truncus arteriosus. 

13.4.10. Describe the development of the valves of the heart. 

13.4.11. Describe fetal circulation and the changes at birth. 

13.4.12. Describe the development of lymphatic tissues and vessels. 

14. Lymphatic System  

14.1. Describe the components and major functions of the lymphatic system 

14.2. Describe the formation and flow of lymph. 

14.3. Describe the organization of lymphatic vessels and circulation. 

14.4. Describe the routes for the drainage of lymph into the right lymphatic duct and a return to the venous system. 

14.5. Describe the routes for the drainage of lymph into the thoracic duct and a return to the venous system. 

14.6. Describe primary and secondary lymphatic organs. 

14.7. Describe the structure and functions of the thymus. 

14.8. Describe the structure and functions of lymph nodes. 

14.9. Describe the structure and functions of the spleen. 

14.10. Describe the flow of lymph through a lymph node. 

14.11. Describe the structure, location and functions of lymphatic nodules. 

14.12. Describe the five tonsils that form the tonsilar (Waldeyer’s) ring. 

14.13. Identify the principal lymph nodes of the thorax. 

14.14. Identify the principal lymph nodes of the upper limb. 

14.15. Discuss the flow of lymph from the breast. 

14.16. Identify the principal lymph nodes of the lower limb. 

14.17. Discuss edema, lymphedema, tonsillitis, splenomegaly, lymphoma, lymphadenitis. 

15. Respiratory System 

15.1. Anatomy 

15.1.1. Describe the functional and structural components of the respiratory system. 

15.1.2. Describe the structure and functions of the nose and nasal cavity. 

15.1.3. Describe the paranasal sinuses and their drainage. 

15.1.4. Describe the structure and functions of the pharynx. 

15.1.5. Describe the structures and functions of the larynx. 

15.1.6. Describe the structures involved in voice production. 

15.1.7. Identify and describe the actions of the muscles of the larynx. 

15.1.8. Identify and describe the actions of the muscles of respiration. 

15.1.9. Describe the structure and function of the trachea. 

15.1.10. Describe the branching of the bronchial tree. 

15.1.11. Describe the relationship of the pleural membranes to the lungs. 

15.1.12. Describe the surface anatomy of the lungs. 

15.1.13. Describe the lobes, lobules and bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs. 

15.1.14. Describe the microscopic airways of the lungs. 

15.1.15. Compare & contrast the microscopic structures of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. 

15.1.16. Describe the components of an alveolus and the respiratory membrane. 

15.1.17. Describe the mechanics of breathing. 

15.1.18. Describe the muscles of inhalation and exhalation. 

15.1.19. Discuss asthma, pleuritis, emphysema, pneumothorax, hemothorax, laryngitis. 

15.2. Embryology 

15.2.1. Describe the major events in the development of the respiratory system. 

15.2.2. List the germ layers which contribute to the formation of the respiratory tract. 

15.2.3. Describe the structural components of the pharyngeal apparatus (arch, cleft and pouch). 

15.2.4. Describe the formation of the respiratory diverticulum and lung buds. 

15.2.5. Describe the development of bronchi. 

15.2.6. Describe the formation of the pleural and pericardial cavities. 

15.2.7. Describe the stages of lung development. 

15.2.8. Discuss respiratory distress syndrome. 

16. Digestive System 

16.1. Anatomy 

16.1.1. Name and describe the abdominopelvic regions. 

16.1.2. Identify the organs of the digestive system. 

16.1.3. Describe the basic processes performed by the digestive system. 

16.1.4. Describe the structure and function of the layers that form the wall of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. 

16.1.5. Describe the innervation of the GI tract and the plexuses that form the enteric nervous system. 

16.1.6. Describe the peritoneum and peritoneal folds. 

16.1.7. Describe the arrangement of visceral and parietal peritoneum. 

16.1.8. Describe and identify retroperitoneal vs. intraperitoneal organs. 

16.1.9. Describe the location, structure, function and secretion of the salivary glands. 

16.1.10. Describe the structure and functions of the tongue. 

16.1.11. Describe the structure and function of the lingual papillae. 

16.1.12. Describe the structure and function of the taste buds. 

16.1.13. Describe the structure and function of the pharynx. 

16.1.14. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the esophagus. 

16.1.15. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the stomach. 

16.1.16. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the small intestine. 

16.1.17. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the large intestine. 

16.1.18. Describe the anatomy and histology of the rectum and anal canal. 

16.1.19. Compare the internal and external anal sphincters. 

16.1.20. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the liver. 

16.1.21. Describe the path of blood flow through the liver. 

16.1.22. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the gallbladder. 

16.1.23. Describe the anatomy of the biliary tree.  

16.1.24. Discuss gallstones, the potential sites where gallstones can be lodged and explain the effects on the bile flow. 

16.1.25. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the pancreas. 

16.1.26. Describe the location of the spleen and its relationship to surrounding structures. 

16.1.27. Describe the blood supply of the foregut and spleen. 

16.1.28. Describe the blood supply of the midgut. 

16.1.29. Describe the blood supply of the hindgut. 

16.1.30. Describe the hepatic portal system and major veins of the digestive system. 

16.1.31. Discuss Barrett’s esophagus, GERD, gallstones, hemorrhoids, intestinal obstruction, peptic ulcer, appendicitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis and colorectal cancer. 

16.2. Embryology 

16.2.1. Describe the major events in the development of the digestive system 

16.2.2. List the tissues and germ layers which contribute to the formation of the GI tract and glands. 

16.2.3. Describe the embryological concept of the foregut, midgut and hindgut & list the parts of the digestive tract arising from these embryological structures. 

16.2.4. Describe the general scheme of the blood supply of the foregut, midgut and the hindgut.  

16.2.5. Describe an ileal (Meckel) diverticulum. 

16.2.6. Describe the embryological origin and development of the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. 

16.2.7. Compare and contrast the embryologic origin of the anal canal above and below the pectinate line. 

17. Urinary System 

17.1. Describe and identify the major structures and functions of the urinary system. 

17.2. Describe the location of the kidneys and their relationship with surrounding organs/structures. 

17.3. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the kidneys. 

17.4. Describe the types of nephrons. 

17.5. Describe the components of a nephron. 

17.6. Describe the histology of a renal corpuscle. 

17.7. Describe the juxtaglomerular apparatus. 

17.8. Describe the functions of nephrons and the components of the filtration membrane. 

17.9. Describe the path of blood flow through the kidneys. 

17.10. Describe the flow of fluid through a nephron.  

17.11. Describe the path of urine from the renal papilla to the external urethral orifice. 

17.12. Describe the course and relationships of the ureters.  

17.13. Describe the location of the suprarenal glands. 

17.14. Discuss kidney stones, the potential sites where kidney stones can be lodged and the effects on urine flow. 

17.15. Describe the relationship of the bladder to other organs. 

17.16. Describe the anatomy and histology of the urinary bladder.  

17.17. Compare the innervation of the internal and external urethral sphincters.  

17.18. Identify the divisions of the male urethra. 

17.19. Compare and contrast the male versus female urethra. 

17.20. Explain why lower urinary tract infections are more common to females than in males. 

17.21. Discuss kidney stones, kidney transplant, renal failure, dialysis and incontinence. 

18. Reproductive System 

18.1. Overview 

18.1.1. Identify and describe the anatomical location of the male and female reproductive organs. 

18.1.2. Describe the perineum including the urogenital and anal triangles. 

18.1.3. Identify the supporting muscles of the male and female perineum. 

18.1.4. Describe what is meant by true and false pelvis. 

18.1.5. Review the differences between the male and female bony pelvis. 

18.1.6. Discuss vasectomy, benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatic cancer, erectile dysfunction, ectopic pregnancy, tubal ligation, uterine prolapse, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, sexually transmitted infections and birth control. 

18.2. Male  

18.2.1. List the major components of the male reproductive system and the general functions. 

18.2.2. Describe the structure and functions of the scrotum. 

18.2.3. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the testes. 

18.2.4. Describe the histology and functions of the seminiferous tubules. 

18.2.5. Describe meiosis and the process of spermatogenesis. 

18.2.6. Identify Sertoli cells and Leydig cells and describe their functions. 

18.2.7. Describe the blood-testis barrier. 

18.2.8. Describe the intra- and extra- testicular duct system. 

18.2.9. Describe histology and functions of the efferent ducts. 

18.2.10. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the epididymis. 

18.2.11. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the ductus deferens. 

18.2.12. Describe the pathway followed by the sperm from the seminiferous tubules to external urethral orifice. 

18.2.13. Describe the structures that comprise the spermatic cord & the passage through the inguinal canal. 

18.2.14. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the seminal vesicles. 

18.2.15. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the prostate gland. 

18.2.16. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the bulbourethral glands. 

18.2.17. Describe the characteristics and functions of semen. 

18.2.18. Describe the parts of the male urethra. 

18.2.19. Describe the anatomy and functions of the penis. 

18.2.20. Describe the processes of erection and ejaculation. 

18.3. Female 

18.3.1. Identify the structures in the female pelvis and describe the relations with each other. 

18.3.2. Describe the peritoneal reflections over the organs in the female pelvis. 

18.3.3. Describe the rectouterine pouch (of Douglas) and its clinical significance. 

18.3.4. Describe the components female external genitalia.  

18.3.5. Describe the anatomy of the female urethra and its clinical significance. 

18.3.6. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the ovaries. 

18.3.7. Describe meiosis, the process of oogenesis & follicular development. 

18.3.8. Identify primordial, primary, secondary and mature follicles. 

18.3.9. Describe the female reproductive cycle including the ovarian and uterine cycles. 

18.3.10. Describe the hormonal regulation of the reproductive cycle. 

18.3.11. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the uterine tubes. 

18.3.12. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the uterus. 

18.3.13. Identify the layers of the uterus. 

18.3.14. Describe the anatomical position of the uterus and its relations with the bladder and the rectum. 

18.3.15. Identify the uterosacral, cardinal, ovarian, round, suspensory and broad ligaments. 

18.3.16. Identify the layers of the endometrium. 

18.3.17. Compare the structure and functions of the endometrium in different phases of the uterine cycle. 

18.3.18. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of the vagina. 

18.3.19. Describe the anatomy of the breast & the histology and function mammary glands. 

18.3.20. Describe the lymphatic drainage of the breast and its clinical significance. 

18.3.21. Describe the pathway followed by the sperm in the female genital tract after sexual intercourse. 

18.3.22. Describe the clinical importance of the relationship of vagina with the cervix and peritoneum. 

18.4. Embryology of the Genitourinary Systems  

18.4.1. Describe the major events in the development of the urinary system. 

18.4.2. List the tissues and germ layers which contribute to the formation of the urinary system. 

18.4.3. Describe the development of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and the urethra. 

18.4.4. Describe the ascent and rotation of the kidneys. 

18.4.5. Describe the major events in the development of the male and female reproductive systems. 

18.4.6. List the tissues and germ layers which contribute to the formation of the reproductive system. 

18.4.7. Describe the development of testes & ovaries.  

18.4.8. Describe the embryological process of descent of testes through the anterior abdominal wall. 

18.4.9. Describe the development of the external genitalia. 

18.4.10. List the adult derivatives and vestigial remnants of embryonic urogenital structures. 

18.4.11. Discuss hypospadia, cryptorchidism, horse-shoe kidney, renal agenesis. 

19. Nervous System 

19.1. Introduction 

19.1.1. Describe the anatomical and functional organization of the nervous system. 

19.1.2. Describe the components of the central nervous system (CNS). 

19.1.3. Describe the components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS).  

19.1.4. Describe the somatic nervous system.  

19.1.5. Describe the autonomic nervous system including the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.  

19.1.6. Describe the enteric nervous system. 

19.1.7. Describe the three basic functions of the nervous system.  

19.1.8. Describe the histology and functions of neurons. 

19.1.9. Describe the classification of neurons.  

19.1.10. Describe the types of synapses.  

19.1.11. Describe the neuromuscular junction. 

19.1.12. Compare electrical and chemical synapses.  

19.1.13. Describe signal transmission at a chemical synapse.  

19.1.14. Describe the classification of neurons.  

19.1.15. Describe the histology and functions of neuroglia.  

19.1.16. Describe the types of neuroglia in the CNS and their functions.  

19.1.17. Discuss the components and function of the blood-brain barrier.  

19.1.18. Describe the types of neuroglia in the PNS and their functions.  

19.1.19. Describe myelination.  

19.1.20. Compare nuclei, ganglia, nerves and tracts.  

19.1.21. Describe gray and white matter. 

19.1.22. Describe the arrangement of gray and white matter in the CNS. 

19.2. Embryology 

19.2.1. Describe the major events in the development of the nervous system. 

19.2.2. List the tissues and germ layers which contribute to the formation of the nervous system. 

19.2.3. Describe the process of neurulation and the adult derivatives. 

19.2.4. Describe the formation of neural crest cells and their derivatives. 

19.2.5. Discuss neural tube defects including spina bifida and anencephaly. 

19.2.6. Describe development of the brain. 

19.2.7. Describe the formation of the primary brain vesicles. 

19.2.8. Describe the formation of the secondary brain vesicles and the adult derivatives. 

19.3. Brain 

19.3.1. List and identify the major parts of the brain.  

19.3.2. Describe the protective coverings of the brain.  

19.3.3. Identify the three layers of the meninges that surround the brain.  

19.3.4. Describe arterial supply and venous drainage of the brain. 

19.3.5. Discuss the components and function of the blood-brain barrier.  

19.3.6. Explain the formation and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).  

19.3.7. List the functions the CSF performs to protect the central nervous system.  

19.3.8. List and identify the ventricles of the brain.  

19.3.9. Describe hydrocephalus.  

19.3.10. List and identify the three structures of the brainstem.  

19.3.11. Describe the anatomy and function of the medulla oblongata.  

19.3.12. List the five pairs of cranial nerves associated with the medulla oblongata.  

19.3.13. Describe the anatomy and function of the pons.  

19.3.14. List the four pairs of cranial nerves associated with the pons.  

19.3.15. Describe the anatomy and function of the midbrain.  

19.3.16. List the two pairs of cranial nerves associated with the midbrain.  

19.3.17. Describe the anatomy and function of the reticular formation.  

19.3.18. Identify and describe the anatomy and functions of the cerebellum.  

19.3.19. Discuss ataxia.  

19.3.20. List and identify the three components of the diencephalon.  

19.3.21. Describe the anatomy and function of the thalamus.  

19.3.22. Describe the anatomy and function of the hypothalamus.  

19.3.23. Describe the anatomy and function of the epithalamus.  

19.3.24. Identify and describe the function of the pineal gland.  

19.3.25. Describe the cortex, gyri, fissures and sulci of the cerebrum.  

19.3.26. List and identify the lobes of the cerebrum.  

19.3.27. Describe the three types of cerebral white matter tracts.  

19.3.28. Identify and describe the function of the corpus callosum.  

19.3.29. Describe the function of the basal ganglia.  

19.3.30. Describe the anatomy and function of the limbic system.  

19.3.31. Discuss the signs, symptoms and causes of concussion.  

19.3.32. List, identify and describe the anatomy and function of the sensory, association and motor areas of the cerebral cortex.  

19.3.33. Describe aphasia including the areas affected in fluent and non-fluent aphasia.  

19.3.34. Discuss the functional asymmetry of the brain.  

19.3.35. Describe the structure and importance of the blood brain barrier  

19.3.36. Outline the somatic sensory & motor pathways. 

19.3.37. Discuss subdural hematoma, epidural hematoma, subarachnoid bleed and cerebrovascular accident. 

19.4. Spinal Cord & Spinal Nerves 

19.4.1. Describe the protective structures of the spinal cord.  

19.4.2. Describe the spinal tap procedure.  

19.4.3. Describe the external anatomy of the spinal cord and spinal nerves.  

19.4.4. Describe the internal anatomy of the spinal cord.  

19.4.5. Outline the blood supply to the spinal cord. 

19.4.6. Describe the organization of gray and white matter in the spinal cord.  

19.4.7. Describe the components, connective tissue coverings and branching of a spinal nerve.  

19.4.8. Describe the loss of function following traumatic injury to different regions of the spinal cord.  

19.4.9. Compare the cross section of spinal cord at different vertebral regions. 

19.4.10. Outline the general components of a reflex arc. 

19.4.11. Describe the formation of the spinal nerves.   

19.4.12. Describe a nerve plexus and list the principal plexuses.  

19.4.13. Describe the origin and distribution of the cervical plexus.  

19.4.14. Identify the ansa cervicalis, transverse cervical, phrenic, lesser occipital and greater auricular nerves.  

19.4.15. Describe the origin and distribution of the brachial plexus.  

19.4.16. Identify the long thoracic, axillary, musculocutaneous, radial, median and ulnar nerves.  

19.4.17. Describe the effect of brachial plexus injury including the long thoracic, radial, median, and ulnar nerves. 

19.4.18. Describe the origin and distribution of the lumbar plexus.  

19.4.19. Identify the iliohypogastric, ilioinguinal, lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh, genitofemoral, femoral and obturator nerves.  

19.4.20. Describe the origin and distribution of the sacral and coccygeal plexuses.  

19.4.21. Identify the posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh, sciatic, tibial, medial plantar, lateral plantar, common fibular, deep fibular and superficial fibular nerves.  

19.4.22. Describe the distribution and significance of dermatomes.  

19.4.23. Identify spinal nerve injuries in basic clinical cases. 

19.4.24. Discuss shingles. 

19.5. Cranial Nerves 

19.5.1. Identify the cranial nerves by name, number and type.  

19.5.2. Identify the olfactory nerve and describe its anatomy and function. 

19.5.3. Define anosmia. 

19.5.4. Identify the optic nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.5. Define anopia.  

19.5.6. Identify the oculomotor nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.7. Identify the trochlear nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.8. Identify the abducens nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.9. Define strabismus, ptosis and diplopia. 

19.5.10. Identify the trigeminal nerve and describe the anatomy and function of each branch.  

19.5.11. Identify the facial nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.12. Describe Bell’s palsy.  

19.5.13. Identify the vestibulocochlear nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.14. Define vertigo and tinnitus.  

19.5.15. Identify the glossopharyngeal nerve and describe its anatomy and function.  

19.5.16. Define dysphagia.  

19.5.17. Identify the vagus nerve and describe its anatomy and function. 

19.5.18. Identify the accessory nerve and describe its anatomy and function. 

19.5.19. Identify the hypoglossal nerve and describe its anatomy and function. 

19.5.20. Identify the muscles supplied by somatic motor nerves III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII.    

19.5.21. Describe the sensory supply of somatic sensory nerves V, VII, IX and X. 

19.5.22. Discuss the parasympathetic supply of visceral motor nerves III, VII, IX and X. 

19.5.23. Describe the afferent and efferent limbs involved in cranial nerve reflexes (startle, blink, corneal, gag, cough, pupillary). 

19.5.24. Describe the anatomical origin of each of the cranial nerves and their exit from the skull. 

19.5.25. Identify cranial nerve injuries in basic clinical cases.

19.6. Autonomics  

19.6.1. Compare the structures and functions of the somatic and autonomic nervous system (ANS).  

19.6.2. Describe the motor neuron pathways in the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.  

19.6.3. Compare the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.  

19.6.4. Compare preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the ANS. 

19.6.5. Describe the anatomy of the autonomic ganglia and plexuses. 

19.6.6. Describe the anatomy of sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons. 

19.6.7. Describe the locations of the sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia.  

19.6.8. Describe the anatomy of sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons. 

19.6.9. Describe the autonomic plexuses in the thorax, abdomen and pelvis.  

19.6.10. Describe the pathway of preganglionic sympathetic neurons from the spinal cord to the sympathetic trunk ganglia.  

19.6.11. Describe white rami communicantes.  

19.6.12. Describe the pathways from sympathetic trunk ganglia to visceral effectors.  

19.6.13. Describe gray rami communicantes.  

19.6.14. Describe splanchnic nerves.  

19.6.15. Describe the cranial parasympathetic outflow.  

19.6.16. List the four pairs of cranial nerves associated with the cranial parasympathetic outflow.  

19.6.17. List the four pairs of ganglia associated with the cranial parasympathetic outflow. 

19.6.18. Describe the sacral parasympathetic outflow. 

19.6.19. Describe pelvic splanchnic nerves.  

19.6.20. Describe the major responses of the body to stimulation by the sympathetic division.  

19.6.21. Describe the major responses of the body to stimulation by the parasympathetic division.  

19.6.22. Describe the basic components of an autonomic reflex arc. 

19.6.23. Discuss the relationship of the hypothalamus to the autonomic nervous system. 

19.6.24. Describe the course of visceral sensory fibers traveling with sympathetic nerves, and the location of their cell bodies. 

19.6.25. Discuss the mechanism of referred pain. 

19.7. Special Senses 

19.7.1. Eye 

19.7.1.1. Describe the wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that correspond to visible light.  

19.7.1.2. Describe the anatomy and function of the accessory structures of the eye.  

19.7.1.3. Identify the lacrimal gland and describe the flow of tears.  

19.7.1.4. Identify the extrinsic eye muscles.  

19.7.1.5. Describe the function and innervation of the extrinsic eye muscles. 

19.7.1.6. Describe the anatomy and histology of the eyeball.  

19.7.1.7. Describe the anatomy and function of the fibrous tunic.  

19.7.1.8. Identify the sclera and cornea.  

19.7.1.9. Describe the anatomy and function of the vascular tunic.  

19.7.1.10. Identify the choroid, ciliary body, ciliary muscle, zonular fibers, iris and pupil.  

19.7.1.11. Describe the innervation and action of the ciliary muscle, sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae.  

19.7.1.12. Describe the anatomy and function of the retina.  

19.7.1.13. Describe the microscopic structure and histology of the retina.  

19.7.1.14. Identify the two types of photoreceptor cells and describe their function.  

19.7.1.15. Identify and describe the optic disc.  

19.7.1.16. Discuss the path of light and direction of nerve impulses through the retina.  

19.7.1.17. Identify and describe the structure of the macula lutea. 

19.7.1.18. Identify the lens and describe its structure and function.  

19.7.1.19. Describe the anatomy of the interior of the eye.  

19.7.1.20. Describe the production and flow of aqueous humor.  

19.7.1.21. Discuss age related macular disease and its effect on vision. 

19.7.1.22. Describe the refraction of light through the eye.  

19.7.1.23. Describe the sequence of events that occur during accommodation for near vision.  

19.7.1.24. Describe constriction of the pupil.  

19.7.1.25. Describe presbyopia.  

19.7.1.26. Describe refraction abnormalities including myopia and hyperopia.  

19.7.1.27. Describe convergence.  

19.7.1.28. Outline the visual pathway. 

19.7.2. Ear 

19.7.2.1. Describe the anatomy and function of the external ear. 

19.7.2.2. Identify the auricle, external auditory canal and tympanic membrane.  

19.7.2.3. Describe the anatomy and function of the middle ear. 

19.7.2.4. Identify the malleus, incus, stapes, oval window, round window and auditory tube. 

19.7.2.5. Describe the anatomy and function of the inner ear.  

19.7.2.6. Describe the bony labyrinth and perilymph.  

19.7.2.7. Describe the membranous labyrinth and endolymph.  

19.7.2.8. Describe the anatomy and function of the cochlea including the spiral organ of Corti.  

19.7.2.9. Describe the nature of sound waves including the audible range of frequencies for humans. 

19.7.2.10. Identify the vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea.  

19.7.2.11. Explain the basic events involved in hearing. 

19.7.2.12. Outline the auditory pathway.  

19.7.2.13. Describe the structures associated with static equilibrium.  

19.7.2.14. Describe the structures associated with dynamic equilibrium.  

19.7.2.15. Outline the equilibrium pathway. 

20. Endocrine System 

20.1. Distinguish between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland.  

20.2. Describe how hormones interact with receptor cells.  

20.3. Distinguish between circulating and local hormones.  

20.4. Describe the anatomical and functional relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.  

20.5. Describe the hypophyseal portal system.  

20.6. Describe the location and histology of the pituitary gland.  

20.7. List the seven major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and the five types of cells that secrete them.  

20.8. Describe the principal actions of the anterior pituitary hormones.  

20.9. Describe the regulation of the anterior pituitary hormone secretion.  

20.10. Discuss the function and regulation of human growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors.  

20.11. List hormones released by the posterior pituitary gland.  

20.12. Describe the regulation and actions of the hormones released by the posterior pituitary gland.  

20.13. Describe the location and histology of the thyroid gland.  

20.14. Describe the regulation and actions of thyroid hormones.  

20.15. Discuss the regulation and action of calcitonin. 

20.16. Describe the location and histology of the parathyroid glands.  

20.17. Discuss the regulation and action of parathyroid hormone.  

20.18. Describe the location and histology of the adrenal glands.   

20.19. List the three zones of the adrenal cortex and the hormones secreted by each zone.  

20.20. Describe the regulation and actions of the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex.  

20.21. Discuss the functions of aldosterone and its regulation by the renin-angiotensin pathway.  

20.22. Describe the regulation and effects of the glucocorticoids.  

20.23. Describe the actions of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). 

20.24. Describe the regulation and actions of the two major hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla.  

20.25. Describe the anatomy and histology of the pancreas. 

20.26. List the cell types of the pancreatic islets and the hormones produced.  

20.27. Discuss the regulation and action of glucagon and insulin.  

20.28. List the hormones produced by the gonads and describe their actions.  

20.29. Describe the location, histology, hormones, and functions of the pineal gland.  

20.30. Discuss the role of melatonin in seasonal affective disorder and jet lag.  

20.31. Describe the role of the thymus gland and its hormones in immunity.  

20.32. Discuss anterior pituitary gland disorders including pituitary dwarfism, gigantism and acromegaly.  

20.33. Discuss posterior pituitary gland disorders including diabetes insipidus.  

20.34. Discuss thyroid gland disorders including Graves’ disease and goiter.  

20.35. Discuss parathyroid gland disorders including hypo- and hyperparathyroidism.  

20.36. Discuss adrenal gland disorders including Cushing’s syndrome, Addison’s disease and pheochromocytoma. 

20.37. Discuss pancreatic disorders including diabetes mellitus, Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.